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= **__Operant Conditioning __** =

**__ Introduction and Description of Operant Conditioning __**  Operant conditioning is a learning theory created by a behaviorist named B. F. Skinner. This form of learning response is in relation to the association that is made between behavior and consequence. This theory was a major part of psychological development in understanding the human mind. It is not only a learning theory, but an understanding of human response to stimuli. There are four major aspects of this theory that are vital to understanding it's basis. The first is positive reinforcement, where something is added in order to increase the response. The second is negative reinforcement, where something is taken away in order to increase the response. Then there is punishment, which is a negative behavior weakened by a consequence of a negative condition. Finally, extinction is a behavior that is weakened by not experiencing a positive response or by stopping a negative condition. This theory was developed by experiments with different animals, and the observation of their learned response. Over time this theory was applied to human response to stimuli. According to Kevin Ryan, James Cooper, and Susan Tauer in their combined text "Teaching for Student Learning: Becoming a Master Teacher," operant conditioning can be defined as "the process of making behaviors more or less likely to recur, based on the consequences, reinforcing or punishing, that follow the behavior." (67) Operant conditioning was influenced by the theory of classical conditioning, which "consists of automatic associations between certain stimuli in the environment and our responses." (67) The difference between the two is that operant conditioning refers to humans learning based on the response they receive to a particular action, where as classical conditioning refers to how people are conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus. An example of classical conditioning is a students response to a school bell, the students know this means class is over and they are to move to their next class. An example of operant conditioning is when a teacher praises and gives attention to a student when they get an answer right. Behaviorist theories center around the idea that humans learn as a result of our past experiences, operant conditioning is a tested theory that supports this concept.

 Operant Behavior
 * Response → Stimulus+ Result: Increased Response - “Reinforcement”
 * Positive Reinforcement – increase in response
 * Positive Punishment – decrease in response
 * Response → Stimulus- Result: Decrease Response - “Punishment
 * Negative Reinforcement – increase in response
 * Negative punishment – decrease in response

 Specific Terms Associated With Operant Conditioning:
 * Acquisition – reinforcing an action, it becomes learned
 * Extinction – when the reinforcement is not presented anymore
 * Spontaneous recovery – come back again and the learning is only a little strong, but will extinct easily as long as the reinforcement is not presented still.

"According to Skinner, through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence. A behaviro followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. For example, when a person smiles at a child after the child has done something, the child is more likely to engage in the activity than if the person gives the child a nasty look.

According to Skinner, such rewards and punishments shape development. For example, Skinner's approach argues that shy people learned to be shy as a result of experiences they had while growing up. It follows that modifications in an environment can help a shy person become more socially oriented. Also, for Skinner the key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings. he emphasized that development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments." (//Children// by John W. Santrock pg. 28)



**__Three Main Characteristics __**  While there are many key parts to the learning theory of operant conditioning, there are three main characteristics that form the theory itself. They are: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.


 * 1) Postive Reinforcement--the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., "positive" as in + sign for addition). In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Negative Reinforcement-- the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted (i.e., "negative" as in a "-" sign for subtraction). In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response. (Note: There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance. In general, the learner must first learn to escape before he or she learns to avoid.)
 * 3) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Punishment--if negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative stimulus, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative stimulus. After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Retrieved from: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behsys/operant.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> These three characteristics are key principles to the theory. The positive reinforcement ends with a rewarding consequence that makes this behavior encouraged to occur in the future because of the association between the reward and the behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs with associating a behavior with an undesirable situation or consequence ending; this reinforcement is used to make the behavior more likely to occur in the future because the individual knows that they must avoid the situation or consequence. The final characteristic of punishment occurs when the "bad" behavior is made less likely to occur in the future by bringing out and undesirable action or response.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This picture shows B.F. Skinner with his wife and daughter, Deborah. The image shows Deborah in Skinner's "Baby Tender" or "Air-Crib," a completely enclosed crib where Skinner could completely control the environment. The "Air-Crib" was sound-proofed and temperature-controlled. Skinner was criticized for the rest of his professional career as experimenting on his family. However, this has been proven to be untrue and Deborah lives today in London, married, and is a successful artist.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Operant Conditioning Webspiration

**__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Strengths and Weaknesses of Operant Conditioning __** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The strengths of this learning theory are the increased responses to the acts of negative and positive reinforcement. These stimuli increase desired behavior within an individual, making a more successful environment because the behavior and action has become learned and understood. Within education, applying operant conditioning helps the students if they are acting in an undesirable way because once verbally guided to the right course of action they are rewarded. Yet, there is also the role of punishment which can be used if necessary. Showing students the correct way to act and to do things is made easy through this theory. Through operant conditioning the behavior is modified to fit the expected response by the educator. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The weaknesses of operant conditioning arise from the idea that human's control their own actions, for some individuals the positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or even punishment carry no weight behind their use. Free will exists and their are people that are not reached through this form of conditioning. The response remains undesirable and there is no connection made between the stimuli and the desired behavior. Also, sometimes the behavior is not actually learned; the individual has merely recognized that if they act or do a specific action, they receive a positive or negative reinforcement and avoid punishment. There can be instances when the entire concept behind this theory does not reach the student being taught.

**__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Is Operant Conditioning Associated with Direct Instruction or Constructivism? __** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In order for operant conditioning to be a successful tool within the classroom, an educator must use it constantly. This form of teaching can be referred to as repetition, they must be continuously working with students in order to reach them and make the behavior learned. The same principles that exist within operant conditioning, exist within direct instruction. According to Rebecca Bocchino in her online article from learnusa.com, "What About Direct Instruction," when referring to operant conditioning and placing it "into the context of education, the same principle applies. In Direct Instruction, the teacher asks a question based on her script; the student gives a scripted, memorized response. Is it connected to other learning? Did the student "learn" it? Or is it reaction to stimuli? In DI, it is a reaction to stimuli." = =

**__ Integration in the classroom __**

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Students who are acting improperly can be dealt with if they are stimulated by working with technology. A student who acts well, but normally acts improperly, can be given privileges to a computer program that they like with simultaneous verbal praise. After a while the verbal praise will become associated with the computer. Verbal praise will become an unconditioned response to good behavior, because good behavior would be conditioned to computer activity.======

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A classroom that would work with this is one that has access to lots of computers. The computers would be off on the side of the classroom. This would allow the teacher to interact with the rest of the class, while also being able to oversee the computer activity of the proper acting students. The computers would be facing the teacher, so the teacher could see screens. The computer programs would be educational, and of a topic that relates to the class.======

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The instruction would be basic. Students that work and act appropriately receive the positive praise and then computer activity. As the students become use to and seek the positive praise. I also think that this type of strategy would work well with younger students, because the programs are available for enriching their learning. Elementary would suit this best.======

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The technology integration would be minimal in depth, but possibly a lot in financial needs. The amount of computers, and the access to computer programs that are fun and engaging would be great. This could mean a computer for each student, but may not need to be. Students that act appropriately may be given the choice to do computer games for recess as one choice. This type of motivation may be positive .======

__**References/Websites Related to Operant Conditioning**__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behsys/operant.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> http://psychweb.psych.duke.edu/department/jers/abl/Chapter04.pdf

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/Skinner.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">http://www.learn-usa.com/education_transformation/er025.htm

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Cooper, J.M., Ryan, K., & Tauer, S. Teaching for Student Learning: Becoming a Master Teacher (2008). Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. (67-70).